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فهرست محتوا
فهرست محتوا
مبانی فلسفه تومائی و تأثیرات آن بر فلسفۀ ماریتن
مبحث اول: دلبستگی ماریتن به توماس آکویناس
مبحث دوم: فلسفۀ تومایی و مبانی آن
گفتار اول: رابطۀ فلسفه و دین در مکتب تومائی
گفتار دوم: خداشناسی در مکتب تومائی
گفتار سوم: مابعدالطبیعه در مکتب تومائی
گفتار چهارم: وجود و ماهیت
گفتار پنجم: معرفت شناسی در مکتب تومائی
گفتار ششم: سیاست و اخلاق در مکتب تومائی
گفتار هفتم: مکتب تومائی در بستر تاریخ
گفتار هشتم: معارضان فلسفۀ نوتومایی
فصل سوم: مبانی نظری فلسفه سياسی ماريتن
مبحث اول: چارچوب کلی نظریۀ ماریتن در فلسفۀ سیاسی
مبحث دوم: مبانی هستی شناسی (متافیزیکی)
گفتار اول: نیاز به مابعدالطبیعه تومائی
گفتار دوم: ماریتن و موضوع مابعدالطبیعه
گفتار سوم: ماریتن و اصول اولیۀ عقل نظری
گفتار چهارم: مفهوم سوژه از نظرگاه ماریتن
گفتار پنجم: ماریتن و راه های اثبات وجود خداوند
مبحث سوم: مبانی معرفت شناسی
گفتار اول: واقع انگاری انتقادی ماریتن
گفتار دوم: ماریتن و علم بما هو کلی
گفتار سوم: ماریتن و مشکل دکارتی
گفتار چهارم: ماهیت دانستن از دیدگاه ماریتن
گفتار پنجم: معرفت به واقعیت فیزیکی از نظر ماریتن
فهرست منابع
بدا به حال من اگر به شیوۀ تومایی نیندیشم
ماریتن هم شیفتۀ شخصیت آکویناس و وامدار او بود و هم شدیداً زیر تأثیر مبانی فلسفۀ او قرار داشت این دو مطلب را در دو گفتار جداگانه پی میگیریم.
مبحث اول: دلبستگی ماریتن به توماس آکویناس
ماریتن از نوجوانی شیفتۀ دستیابی به حقیقت مطلق بود. از همین رو، رئيسا، همسر و همراهِ فکری ژاک، در خاطرات یاد می‌کند که تحصیل فلسفه در دبیرستان هانری پنجم و دانشکدۀ ادبیات دانشگاهِ سوربن برای آنها دل‌سرد کننده بوده است؛ زیرا معلمان «آنها فیلسوف بودند، اما همۀ امید خود را به فلسفه از دست داده بودند».در آن دهه‌ها، مابعدطبیعت به مفهوم قدیم خود از معنا تهی شده بود. تاریخ‌گرایی، تحصل گرایی و شک‌گرایی بر فلسفه سایه گسترده بود. رئیسا در همان کتاب نقل می‌کند که ژاک در شانزده سالگی چنان در تب یافتن حقیقت مابعدطبیعی می‌سوخت که «ناامیدانه بر روی فرش اتاقش به خود می‌پیچید». اما آتش این تب و ولع نه در دبیرستان هانری پنجم، ونه در دانشگاه سوربن فرونشانده نشد. معلمان فلسفه سخت زیر سلطۀ علم‌گرایی و روش علمی بودند و فلسفه از نهج فلسفی روبرتافته و بیشتر مغلوب روش‌های تاریخی و ریاضی شده بود. رئیسا در شرح گرایش معلمان فلسفه آن دوران می‌نويسد:
«آنها بیشترین همّ خود را مصروف تحلیل‌‌های بی‌پایان جزئیات مواد تاریخی می‌کردند و تقریباً همه چیز را بدان تقلیل می‌دادند؛ در حالی که نام و شغل حرفه‌ای آنها اقتضا می‌کرد که تحقیق در حکمت را وظیفة اصلی خود بدانند. همۀ تعلیم آنها یا در جهت معلومات فاضلانۀ تاریخی بود یا در جهت علوم ریاضی. در همۀ اینها، یک نظریه پوزیتیویستی از شناخت ریشه داشت. نتیجه‌ای که آنان باوردارند می‌توانند به صورت موقت آن را صورت‌بندی کنند. سنت عقل‌گرایانه و ایده‌آلیستی که آنان هنوز بدان تکیه دارند، زیر تأثیر مکتب تحصل گرایی و تجربه‌گرایی غبارآلوده شده بود».
به گزارش رئیسا، برای معلمان آن دوره، تاریخ جایگزین فلسفه شده بود؛ مابعدالطبیعهای که روزگاری مالک علوم قلمداد می‌شد. تاریخ همۀ حقوق و امتیازات ويژۀ مابعدالطبیعه را از آنِ خود کرده بود. معلمان فلسفه نیز ندانسته موضوع تاریخ را در قالب الگوی علوم دقیقه بررسی می‌کردند و توقع داشتند تا حاصل آن تحقیق تاریخی، تبیین قاطعانۀ حیات و اندیشه باشد. آنها تاریخ را به علمی «متکبر و متفرعن» بدل کرده بودند و بدین ترتیب با کوششی که برای کاربرد روش‌های تعلیمِ مادی و تجربه‌گرایی داشتند، از دستیابی به حقیقت بازمیماندند. رئيسا می‌نويسد:
«تنها درسی که ما گرفتیم این بود که وجدان و آموزش ملال‌انگیزِ آنان، فقط شک‌گرایی عقلانی و نسبیت‌گرایی می‌آموزد و نیز اگر کسی منطقی بود، نیست‌انگاری اخلاقی به او روی میآورد».
شوق ژاک ماریتن به توماس آکوئینی را باید در همین سیاق فهمید. حکمت تومائی برای ماریتن پادزهری برای نسبیت‌گرایی، شک‌گرایی و نیست‌انگاری اخلاقی بود. میل او به آموزه‌های تومایی واکنشی بود به روح تقلیل‌گرا و مابعدالطبیعه ستیز معلمان فلسفه‌اش. به واقع، کلید فهم سراسر زندگی فکری ژاک ماریتن و فلسفه و الهیات او در همین جا نهفته است. همین انگیزه و سابقه بود که پیش از آشنایی با توماس آکوئیناس او را جذب درس‌های هانری برگسون کرد. آموزه‌های برگسون نیز در تقابل با روح مابعدالطبیعه ستیز، تاریخ‌گرایی، ايده‌آليسم و مکتب تحصلی تقلیل‌گرای زمانه بود؛ زمانه‌ای که متفکران آن می‌کوشیدند همۀ مسائل را به شکل حقایقی از نظر تاریخی تعین‌یافته ببینند که باید از چشم‌انداز روش‌های استدلالی که در علوم فیزیکی به کار برده می‌شود، بررسی شوند. این افراد فلسفۀ وجودی نهایی خود را در ایده‌آلیسم و عقل‌گرایی فلسفی می‌یافتند.
اضطراب مابعدطبیعی ماریتن به بحرانی روحی برای وی و رئیسا تبدیل شد؛ چندان که هر دو تصمیم گرفتند در صورت نیافتن حقیقت مطلق خودکشی کنند. رئيسا می‌گوید لطف خدا و هانری برگسون نجات‌بخش بود و فکر خودکشی را از سر هر دوی آنها انداخت. با حاضر شدن در درس‌های هانری برگسون بود که آنها دریافتند می‌توان حقیقت را شناخت. رئيسا می‌نويسد:
«به يُمن نقد نافذ و عالی‌اش، برگسون، تار و پود پيش‌داوری‌های مابعدطبیعت‌ستیزانۀ پوزيتيويسم شبه‌علمی را از هم گسست و نقش واقعی و آزادی گوهرین روح را بدان بازگرداند».
دو سال پس از گرویدن به آئین کاتولیک، در سال 1908م بود که ماریتن روح فلسفۀ توماس آکوئینی را کشف کرد؛ روحی که ذهن يک متألّهِ مدرسی کاتولیک اصیل را فراگرفت. ماریتن که آموزشی فلسفی داشت و اخیراً به آیین کاتولیک گرویده بود با مشکلی بنیادی روبه‌رو شد. در مقام فیلسوفی که در ادامۀ سنت اندیشمندانی چون سقراط، افلاطون و ارسطو قراردارد، ماریتن به این نتیجه رسید که آن‌چه در دوران جوانی به نام فلسفه به او آموخته‌اند، تقلیدی سطحی از امر واقعی است. فلسفه برای یونانیان همواره بر اصول استدلالی استوار بود که از جهان تجربۀ حسی مایه می‌گرفته است و سپس به مراتب انتزاع و تجرید از جهان مادی و به خدا می‌رسیده است. به سخن دیگر، فلسفه از بررسی تجربۀ مشترک انسانی از جهان حسی آغاز می‌شدهاست و چون بر این امور عمومی بحث را بنا می‌نهاد، می‌توانست بیطرفی و عینیت و واقع‌گرایی خود را حفظ کند. بیطرفی، عینیت و واقع‌گرایی همان اوصافی بود که از نظر ماریتن روحِ مابعدالطبیعه ستیز، ذهن گرا و عقل‌گرای زمانه فاقد آن بود. این روح سوژه‌گرا زادۀ «رؤيای دکارت»بود. ماریتن این رؤيا را توهم و کابوس می‌انگاشت؛ کابوسی که او خود به لطف الاهی و به یُمن درس‌های هانری برگسون از آن بیدار شده بود.
Vae mihi si non Thomistizavero in Jacques Maritain, After 1 corinthians 9:16
Maritain, Raïssa, We Have Been Friends Together; The Memoires of Raïssa Maritain, trans. Julie Kernan, Logmans, Green, New York, 1045, p. 67.
برای آگاهی از دیدگاه‌های ماریتن درباره تأثیر اندیشه رنه دکارت بر جهان نو بنگرید به اثر او:
The Dream of Descartes, trans. Mabelle L. Andison, Philosophical Library, New York, 1944
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ب) برخی از کتابهایی که به طرح اندیشههای ماریتن پرداختهاند
Abelson, Raziel. Ethics and Metaethics: Readings in Ethical Philosophy, “Natural Law,” pp. 229-231. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1963.
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ج) برخی از مقالات
A SALUTE TO JACQUES MARITAINMichael Novak. Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies. Santa Monica: 2009. Vol. 21, Iss. 1/2; p. 124 (19 pages)
A SALUTE TO JACQUES MARITAINMichael Novak. Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies. Santa Monica: 2009. Vol. 21, Iss. 1/2; p. 124 (19 pages)
JACQUES MARITAIN AND EDUARDO FREI MONTALVA: THE PROPHETIC FACTOR OF DEMOCRACYCatherine E Wilson. Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies. Santa Monica: 2009. Vol. 21, Iss. 1/2; p. 83 (23 pages)
JACQUES MARITAIN’S PERSONALISTIC SOCIETY AND PLURALISMGeoff Wells. Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies. Santa Monica: 2009. Vol. 21, Iss. 1/2; p. 25 (26 pages)
MARITAIN ON HUMAN DIGNITY AND HUMAN RIGHTSPamela Werrbach Proietti. Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies. Santa Monica: 2009. Vol. 21, Iss. 1/2; p. 106 (17 pages)
Maritain’s AmericaThomas Albert Howard. First Things. New York: Jan 2007. p. 13 (4 pages)
Beyond the Personal: Weil’s Critique of MaritainEric O Springsted. Harvard Theological Review. Missoula: Apr 2005. Vol. 98, Iss. 2; p. 209 (10 pages)
د) پایاننامههایی که به بررسی اندیشههای ماریتن پرداختهاند
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